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The Impact of Media on Behavior Essay This chapter presents the background, problem statement, purpose, specific objectives, the scope and the significance of the study. This study intended to find out the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth using a case study of orphanage homes found in Rubaga division Kampala District 1.1: Background to the problem. Several past researchers have had interest in the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in different contexts. For instance the research by Wingson (2009) was about the effects of mass media on teenager. He notes in this research that mass media has become part of everyone’s daily life. He adds that the development of technology is rapid in the world, from telegraph, radio, to TV, computer, mobile phone. He further noted that media makes the lives of the people at ease, along with Information and Communication Technologies they produce to increase the standard of living for the people to spend time. He concludes that, teenagers can easier to get mass media in computer. They can through computers to know different types of mass media that they want to have. Dr. Baumrind (1966) studied how parents responded to the needs of their children, parental responsiveness and how that determined a child’s  behavior. She also looked at how they demanded things from their children, in terms of their behavior. She used these two measures of parenting to form her seminal parenting styles theory, which would shape the voice of psychology and criminology well into the 1990’s. The research by Farinola, Donnerstein, (2001) was on sexuality and mass media. The research shows that sexual talk and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in this mediated world. The research adds that sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997-1998 to more than two-thirds of the programs in the 1999-2000 seasons, while the research of Rahaman Onike (2007) was social and health implications of teenage pregnancies. The research notes that the incidence of teenage pregnancy has become a global issue as a result of its consequence on population health, growth and development. Lastly Crystal, (1990) carried out research on the causes teenage pregnancies. His research shows that teenagers’ risky sexual behaviours are major factors which predispose them to unwanted pregnancies. He adds that non -perception of risks in their sexual behaviours and lack of adequate information about reproduction and sexual health issues are largely responsible for teenage pregnancies. The research concludes that sexual behaviours of the teenagers depend largely on societal constrictions and the level of cultural permissiveness which dictate the modes of sexual practices While much research concerning teenage pregnancy deals with either causal factors or prevention strategies, more information is needed about issues relating to parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies. All these past researchers isolated the above relationship a gap the proposed study intends to fill. All in all, with the above theoretical and contextual gaps raised, a study of the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies is not only timely but also long overdue. In the context of this study, parenting style is seen as a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use bin their child rearing. There are many different theories and opinions on the best ways to rear, children, as well as differing levels of time and effort that parents are willing to invest (Wikipedea 2010). Many parents create their own styles from a combination of factors, and these may evolve overtime as the children develop their own personalities and move through life stages. A parenting style is affected by both the parents’ and children’s temperaments, and is largely based on the influence one’s parents and culture. However, for the purposes of this study, parenting style will be understood to refer to the way parents bring about their children. It will include the things that parents do to impart discipline and good behaviors in their children as accepted in the context of Uganda. According to Wikipedea (2008), mass media denotes a section of the media specifically designed to reach a large audience. The term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nation wide radio networks, mass circulation of newspapers and magazines. However for the purposes of this research mass media will be used to mean news papers, magazines, radio stations and television programs related to issues of teenagers. In the context of this study, teenage pregnancy can be described as the pregnancy that occurs to the females between 13 – 19 years. This is more prevalent in Africa than other continents of the world. Akindele Oscar (1999) also defines teenage pregnancy as conception by children who are below the age of 21 resulting from either marital or pre-marital sex. Peer pressure refers top the influence exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change his or her attitude, values or behavior in order to conform to group norms Akindele Oscar (1999) 1.2: Statement of the Problem. According to Barnaba A (1998), youth peer pressure is one of the most frequently referred to forms of peer pressure. It is particularly common pressure because most young people spend large amounts of time in fixed  groups such as schools and sub-groups within them regardless of their opinion of those groups Meier (2008). In addition to this, they may lack the maturity to handle pressure from friends. Also, young people are more willing to behave negatively towards those who are not members of their own peer groups and relief from stress. They need to better understand their condition and choices for care. However, this is not the case for teenagers in most cases most vulnerable persons do not receive good parenting and in most cases they are more exposed to information without restriction. As a result most of the teenagers engage in more risky sexual behaviors they see in the magazines, in the news papers and on television. It is for this reason that this study sets out to investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies in Rubaga Kampala District 1.3:Purpose of the study The purpose of the study will be to establish the relationship to investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies in Rubaga Kampala District. 1.4:Objectives of the study 1.To establish the relationship between parenting styles and teenage pregnancies 2.To establish the relationship between mass media and teenage pregnancies. 3.To establish the relationship between peer pressure and teenage pregnancies. I.5:Research questions 1.How do parenting styles contribute to the risk of teenage pregnancies? 2.What is the contribution of mass media on the risk of teenage pregnancies? 3.How does peer pressure contribute to teenage pregnancies? 1.6:Scope of the study The study will be conducted in five selected orphanage homes found in Rubaga division of Kampala. Rubaga Division has five orphanage homes namely Sanyu Babies home, Nalukolongo, Hope Orphanage Home, Wakhissa Ministries, Cobap Nakulabye Project. Rubaga Division is selected because of its location in the heart of Kampala district and being a division with many community based  organizations. The content scope of the study will be based on the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies. 1.7:Significance of the study The findings of the study could be of value to Rubaga division residents because the research will help them identify strategies which can work for them as regards combating teenage pregnancies. To future researchers, the results of the study may support future researchers in having a basis for comparison of parenting styles and teenage pregnancies. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) could find the study useful because it would enable them lobby policy makers and government to provide appropriate community services as regards the youth. To the youth, the results of the study will help them on knowing the best strategies of avoiding teenage pregnancies. Media houses may find it useful as it may help them in choosing the best programs for the youth. 1.8:Conceptual Frame work Fig 1: A conceptual framework showing the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancies among the youth. The conceptual framework shows that parenting styles mass media influence and peer pressure have got an impact on the youth that in turn make the youth prone to pregnancies. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0:Introduction Teenage pregnancy has become a growing concern nowadays and hence it has become imperative to look into the various causes of teenage pregnancy in  order to deal with this issue carefully. Teenage pregnancies are widely discouraged because the of health risks they raise for the young mothers and their babies. This problem is more prevalent in developed countries, particularly USA. As the name itself indicates, teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancy in young girls, mostly aged 13 to 17 years. Pregnancy at such a tender age is primarily due to lack of sex education. Lack of awareness about the causes and effects of teenage pregnancy is more often than not, a result of lack of proper communication between teenagers and their parents. Therefore, it is the duty of the parents to impart adequate sex education and education regarding reproductive health to their adolescent sons and daughters so that their children become aware of the various aspects related teenage sex and pregnancy. Schools and society also need to emphasize the risk factors associated with unprotected sex as well as the outcomes of unplanned teenage pregnancy, not to mention the significance of moral and ethical values. Lack of sex education is the most important but not the only cause of teenage pregnancy. Following are some other teenage pregnancy causes that can not be ignored. Teenage pregnancies create a host of other problems like incomplete education, unemployment, poverty, social embarrassment and numerous other emotional traumas. Further, early motherhood also affects the psychological development of the child adversely. Besides, bodies of teenage girls are not as developed as those of adult women in terms of childbearing, therefore they are likely to face certain complications as well. Moreover, the chances of maternal death can not be ruled out. Therefore, analyzing the various causes of teenage pregnancy can help a great deal in addressing this issue effectively and eventually reduc ing the cases of teenage pregnancies. 2.1:Parenting styles and the risk of teenage Pregnancy among the youth Despite what teens may say, their parents do play a critical role in determining what influences them. In many ways, parental behavior and the nature of the parent/teen relationship influences a teens decision to smoke, take drugs, become sexually active, and use contraception. Parental behavior can also affect teenagers choices to join a gang or participate in criminal activity. As a parent, you play a vital role in helping your child avoid risky behaviors. Actively listening to what your teen has to say will pave the way for conversations about topics that concern you, but setting harsh, unbending  rules may only drive your teen toward negative choices. If parents have a dominating parenting style and arent knowledgeable about their teens activities and interests, it is more likely that their teen will engage in risky behaviors. On the other hand, teens who report feeling connected to their parents are the least likely to engage in risky behaviors. Obviously, the reason at the base of any pregnancy is sexual intercourse. But several researchers would like to know why the phenomenon of teenage pregnancy is so widespread. The easiest answer is making an analysis of the relationship between parenting styles and the sexual behaviors that cause teenage pregnancies among the youth. Parents employ several strategies to influence the sexual behavior of their adolescent children. Parenting styles, parental communication and expectation and role modeling have an impact on the likelihood of teenage pregnancy. The influence of parenting strategies on teenage pregnancy is similar for male and female youth because pregnancy comes as a result of sexual intercourse between the two. Therefore teen pregnancy prevention programs should emphasize helping parents develop effective discipline coupled with warmth and support and high educational expectations. Research has shown that one of the causes of teenage pregnancy is the lack of a sense of personal responsibility for their own actions, lack of maturity, and most importantly a lack of knowledge regarding sexual intercourse and contraception. Related to this, teen pregnancy is often closely associated with poverty, limited education and employment opportunities. 52% of teenagers admit not understanding sex or birth control and this is a reflection of one of the most fundamental causes of teenage pregnancy, ignorance. Indeed, teens in North America, especially girls, are bombarded with mixed messages concerning intercourse. Sex is seen as immediate gratification with no consequences, but preparing for sex makes a girl promiscuous. Sex is seen all over the television and in videos, but equal treatment for birth control methods is completely absent. Open discussions about intercourse are very rare. If an adolescent girl experiences low expectations for her future or lack of control over her life, she is more likely to get pregnant. Depression in general is another one of the causes of teenage pregnancy, leading girls to engage in risky sexual activity. Abuse of alcohol or drugs also leads to poor choices about sex and contraception, often ending up in pregnancy. Growing up in a family  without an adequate amount of love or a father figure may also be one of the causes of teenage pregnancy; an adolescent girl will fall prey to the attentions of an older man in the hopes of receiving affection. Most girls are pressured by their boyfriends into having intercourse because they believe this will make their b oyfriends love them more. There is a relationship between teenage pregnancy, sexual behavior, and family type. Students from lone parent and/or teenage mother initiate families more commonly report sex, lack of contraception at first sex, and/or conceptions by age 15/16, and such associations can be explained by low parental strictness, difficult parent-child communication, and/or low parental input into sex education. Girls and boys from lone parent families or having mothers who are teenagers when they were born are more likely to report sex but not lack of contraception at first sex by age 15/16. Girls and boys with mothers having them as teenagers, and boys but not girls from lone parent families, are more likely to report being involved in conceptions by age 15/16. Teens say their parents influence their decisions about sexual activity more than any other source, according to a survey conducted by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. Also, when asked where they learned the most about preventing teen pregnancy, more teens said parents than friends or the media. Most studies show that the risk of teen pregnancy is reduced by open communication with parents, sharing of family values, and parental involvement in teens lives. Teenagers are less likely to start having sex when their mothers are deeply involved in their lives and successfully communicate their values on sex. Research has shown that stressing abstinence to teens is best, but also talking to them about contraception is not viewed as a mixed message by 70% of adults and by 80% of teens. Boys may be more influenced by fathers, siblings and peers on their decision to have intercourse. In a loving, supportive, and open way, parents need to communicate their feelings on premarital sex clearly to their teen in order to help their teen make important decisions regarding sex. The absence of positive family interaction and parental support, such as emotional support, closeness, and communication, can lead to a wide variety of risky behaviors among teens. Parents need to talk to their teens, consistently set rules and expectations for their teens behavior, and monitor what their teen does. Parents can support positive peer  relationships by giving their teenagers their love, time, boundaries, and encouragement to think for themselves. Previous research has attributed a girls increased risk of pregnancy to the possible consequences of a father leaving lower family income, conflict at home and weak parental monitoring. Girls whose fathers left either before they were born or up to age 5 were seven to eight times more at risk of becoming pregnant as an adolescent than girls living with their fathers. A fathers departure between ages 6 to13 suggested a two to three times greater risk of becoming pregnant. Having no father usually means less household income and a greater chance of other disadvantages, such as domestic violence or a depressed mother. Sometimes parents need help talking to their children about such difficult topics as teenage sexuality and pregnancy prevention. Teenage pregnancy prevention must be a way of life and a natural and integral way of thinking for children as the actions that lead to or away from teenage pregnancy lies squarely, and at the end of the day, solely with their teenage children. Children will be greatly influenced by the parental example that has been given them to follow is clear, but they will have to decide for themselves what actions they will take in any given circumstance. Sometimes parents need help talking to their children about such difficult topics as teenage sexuality and pregnancy prevention. Teenage pregnancy prevention must be a way of life and a natural and integral way of thinking for children as the actions that lead to or away fr om teenage pregnancy lies squarely, and at the end of the day, solely with their teenage children. Children will be greatly influenced by the parental example that has been given them to follow is clear, but they will have to decide for themselves what actions they will take in any given circumstance. A child who can openly and honestly speak with their Parents about anything and everything literally has the greatest single gift, and the largest possible safety net, a Parent can provide to their child. Children need to know how Parents feel about sex. They need to know the reasons for and against engaging in sexual behaviors and the possible consequences regarding each course of action. Discuss your views about sex and its proper time and place in a healthy and happy life. Parents should just start talking and see where the conversation takes them. Children are taught in school the importance of safe sex and the use of condoms to prevent an unwanted pregnancy and/or sexually transmitted  diseases, including AIDS. Parents should ensure their children understand these issues even if the plan is for their children to not be sexually active at this time in their lives. Having a clear understanding of safe sex practices can prevent a teenage issue that leads to sex from being a larger and more damaging issue than it has to be. Parents need to know who their children are spending time with. They should get to know their children’s friends and their friend’s family. Friends who share common thoughts and beliefs are more likely to support children in wholesome and proper activities. In the parenting style taken up by the parents, there should be clear family rules regarding the age at which our children can start dating, and those first dates should be group events engaged in wholesome activities. Parents should also realize that the risk of teenage pregnancy increases dramatically when girls date boys who are 1 to 3 years older than they are. Parents who can help their children see a bright future are the same Parents who are helping the cause of teenage pregnancy prevention. The chances of teenager delaying sexual activity are greatly increased if their futures appear bright, they have goals for their future, and they can see how proper behavior and correct actions will help them get to where they want to go in life. Teenagers who are active and successful in school are more likely to have a clear vision for their future, and hence avoid behavior that could put at risk the future they want to achieve. Parents should help their children to believe in themselves, to have a healthy self-image and positive self-esteem and enjoy a solid vision for their happy tomorrows. Parents should help teenagers to see that their choices of today will directly affect their tomorrows. Having that clear vision of a bright and hopeful future makes teenage pregnancy prevention a logical and welcome avenue to the future life our children desire so desperately to enjoy. Some parents help children know their parts and to learn their lines well, so that when the action scenes of their lives are lived they can be the hero of their own stories and avoid the heart ache scenes that don’t have to be a part of their productions. 2.2:Mass media and the risk of teenage pregnancies among the youth. Mass media is designed to reach large audiences with technology. Its purpose is meant to give us entertainment and information we need to act as a society. Media is everywhere; there is no escaping from it. Almost every home in urban areas has at least one TV, the  internet, and a cell phone. There are more forms of media available today than ever before; consequently, teens are exposed to a lot of information. The media is supposed to portray what is normal; therefore, it affects what society considers normal. Teens are much more impressionable then adults. What the media tells them is normal affects them more. The media’s portrayal of body image affects teens negatively through using stereotypes, encouraging sexual behavior, and promoting unnecessary products. The media portrays single parent homes, teen pregnancy, and the social issue that America faces in a positive light. Music Television (MTV) has several shows which portray teen pregnancy as a positive attribute of life: Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant. Teen Mom is an American reality television series that premiered on MTV on December 8, 2009. The perceived sensitivity of sex as a research topic and a focus on television t o the exclusion of other media unfortunately has restricted the kind of research that has been done. Much of the empirical work has been analyses of content that allow only speculation about what effects the content might have on audiences. But an emerging set of studies that go beyond content to address how audiences select, interpret, and apply sexual content suggests that the media may play an important role, especially for young people Steele, (1999). The mass media are an increasingly accessible way for people to learn about and see sexual behavior Wikipedea, (2010). The media may be especially important for young people as they are developing their own sexual beliefs and patterns of behavior and as parents and schools remain reluctant to discuss sexual topics Roberts, (2000). In the United States, young people spend 6 to 7 hours each day on average with some form of media. A national survey in 1999 found that one third of young children (2 to 7 years old) and two thirds of older children and adolescents (8 to 18 years old) have a television in their own bedroom. Many of those televisions also are hooked up to cable and a Videocassette Recorder (VCR) (Roberts, 2000). Sexual talk and displays are increasingly frequent and explicit in this mediated world. One content analysis found that sexual content that ranged from flirting to sexual intercourse had increased from slightly more than half of television programs in 1997-1998 to more than two-thirds of the programs in the 1999-2000 season. Depiction of intercourse (suggestive or explicit) occurred in one of every 10 programs (Kunkel, Cope-Farrar, Biely, Farinola,   Donnerstein, 2001). Many teens admit that sexualized content in film, television and music helps influence them to engage in sexual activity before they are ready. One fifth to one half of music videos, depending on the music genre for example country, rock, rap portray sexuality or eroticism DuRant et al., (1997). Two thirds of Hollywood movies made each year are R-rated; most young people have seen these movies long before they are the required 16 years old Greenberg et al., (1993). Although teen girls and womens magazines, such as Seventeen and Glamour have increased their coverage of sexual health issues over the past decade, the majority of advertising and editorial content in these magazines remains focused on what girls and women should do to get and keep their man Walsh-Childers, Gotthoffer, Lepre, ( 2002). The Internet has increased dramatically the availability of sexually explicit content. Computer and Internet use is diffusing more rapidly than any previous technology; as of the end of 1999, more than half (56%) of all adults in the United States were online. It is expected that by 2010 most U.S. homes with children will have access to the Internet Taylor, (1999). The word sex is the most popular search term used on the internet today Cyber Atlas, (2001). The internet may have both positive and negative effects on sexual health. According to one national survey of young people (10-17 years old) who regularly used the internet, one out of four said he or she had encountered unwanted pornography in the past year, and one out of five had been exposed to unwanted sexual solicitations or approaches Finkelhor, Mitchell, Wolak, (2000). At the same time, a number of sites, such as the American Social Health Associations iwannaknow.org, promote healthy sexual behavior and provide young people with advice on communication in relationships as well as methods for protecting against sexually transmitted diseases. Despite increasing public concern about the potential health risks of early, unprotected sexual activity, most of the mass media rarely depict three Cs of responsible sexual behavior: Commitment, Contraceptives, and consideration of Consequences. Although more than half of the couples who engage in sexual intercourse on television are in an established relationship, 1 in 10 are couples who have met only recently; one quarter do not maintain a relationship after having sex Kunkel et al., ( 2001). Only about 1 in 10 of the programs on television that include sexual content  mentions the possible consequences or the need to use contraceptives or protection against STDs. Unintended pregnancies rarely are shown as the outcome of unprotected sex, and STDs other than HIV/AIDS are almost never discussed Kunkel et al., (2001). Abortion is a taboo topic, too controversial for commercial television and magazines Walsh-Childers et al., (2002). The urge to have sex and get pregnancy is now stronger because of the fact that one has an encounter with media. There are teenagers who are getting pregnant just to be on these reality television shows.Teen sexuality is influenced by the mass media today more than any other time in history. Internet, television, music video and sexually explicit lyrics all contribute to adolescents’ attitudes and behavior concerning sexual activity. Only 9% of the sex scenes on 1,300 of cable network programming discusses and deals with the negative cons equences of sexual behavior. The Internet and the anonymity therein allow adolescents real concerns relating to false information on health issues, sexuality, and sexual violence in the world of intimate sexual relationships. In 2006, a survey conducted by The Observer in Britain showed that most adolescents in Britain were waiting longer to have sexual intercourse than they were only a few years earlier. In 2002, 32% of teens were having sex before the age of 16; in 2006 it was only 20%. The average age a teen lost his/her virginity was 17.13 years in 2002; in 2006, it was 17.44 years on average for girls and 18.06 for boys. The most notable drop among teens who reported having sex was 14 and 15 year olds. One group of Canadian researchers found a relationship between self esteem and sexual activity. They found that students, especially girls, who were verbally abused by teachers or rejected by their peers, were more likely than other students to engage in sex by the end of the Grade 7. The researchers speculate that low self esteem increases the likelihood of sexual activity: low self-esteem seemed to explain the link between peer rejection and early sex. Girls with a poor self-image may see sex as a way to become popular, according to the researchers. 2.3:Peer Pressure and the risk of teenage Pregnancy among the youth The incidence of teenage pregnancy in relationship with peer pressure has become a global issue as a result of its consequence on population health, growth and development. It is undoubtedly a worldwide concern since the Cairo  international conference on population and development held in 1994 has raised it as an issue among others. Teenagers are children who fall within the chronological age of twelve to nineteen years. Teen, of course, is a period when a child begins to develop secondary sexual characteristics, started to assume higher social responsibilities and started to express sexual feelings and desires. This is a delicate period in the life of the children for all physical changes have great impacts on the psychological functioning of the child. Teenagers’ risky sexual behaviours are major factors which predispose them to unwanted pregnancies. Non perception of risks in their sexual behaviours and lack of adequate information about reproduction and sexual health issues are largely responsible for teenage pregnancies. Sexual behaviours of the teenagers depend largely on societal constrictions and the level of cultural permissiveness which dictate the modes of sexual practices (Crystal, 1990). Biological determinants, socialization agents such as family, peers, religious institutions and mass media have powerful repressive effects on teenagers’ sexual behaviours. An adolescent female in need of money is likely to be tempted to engage in pre-marital sex by friends who come from rich families or those that use sexual activity to get money and this could result into incident of unwanted teenage pregnancy. Students whose parents are low income earners face the higher risk of engaging in pre-marital sex and this could eventually lead to teenage pregnancy and increase in drop out rate of school. Lack of adequate knowledge of sexuality education accounts for increase in teenage pregnancies. This is because; information about sex is got from peers who may also be less knowledgeable. Knowledge of sexuality education is essential to the development of right sexual attitudes and behaviours. When adequate and accurate information are not available, many teenage students would accept miss-information for truth. Peer group influence is another factor that predisposes teenagers to early and unwanted pregnancies. According to the result of the study conducted by Oladepo and Akintayo (2001), peer group influence was ranked first among the causes of teenage pregnancies. Free mixing of the opposite sex also linked with prevalence of teenage pregnancies. Akinboye (1982) in his contribution states that unrestricted interactions and social activities regularly involving male and female adolescents tend to create an atmosphere for inter-personal  affection, love and even result into sexual activities. Peer influence on the youth sometimes is related to going out or visiting different places where one may learn risky behaviours. Watching sexual stimulating magazines and movies may expose the teenagers to early sexual life and unwanted pregnancies. Participating in nude festivals and watching of pornographic films and images on the internet are also risk factors. Family instability and disorganisation which may be caused by poverty, lack of mutual trust and understanding between parents may cause child neglect and consequently could result into teenage pregnancy and increase in drop out rate of the school. Legalization of abortion and early exposure to sexual life can cause teenage pregnancy. According to the report of a study conducted in Nigeria by Nicholas in 1986, he found out that 24.4 per cent of the girls by the age of 15 years have had sexual intercourse, 63 per cent by 18 years while half of the Nigerian females have become mothers before the age of 20 years. Peer influence is also directly and indirectly related to pre-mature drop out of school which is also a factor which predisposes female students to fall a victim of teenage pregnancy. The drop-out female students after leaving the school due to one reason or the other find it difficult to cope with life; so, took to hawking and in the process may get impregnated. In this case friends may influence one to get married or to join businesses. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0:Introduction This chapter presents the research design, population, sampling strategies, data collection methods, data collection instruments, data quality control, data collection procedure and data analysis that will be used in the study. 3.1:Research design The study will use an explanatory survey design that will be quantitative and descriptive in nature. This design was chosen because it can appropriately investigate the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer  pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in orphanage homes in Rubaga Division of Kampala District. Orphanage homes are chosen because, in most cases these are the places where the children who are victims of unwanted pregnancies are taken for care. 3.2:Area of study The study will be conducted in Rubaga Division in Nakulabye Parish that is COBAP Nakulabye, Nalukolongo Orphanage home, Sanyu Babies home in Namirembe Bakuli Parish, Hope Orphanage home and Wakhissa Ministries in Bakuli. Five orphanage homes will be randomly selected as they are the only orphanage homes available in the area of study. The researcher will also go to 3 radio stations in the area of study that is Super FM, Central Broadcasting Service and Ssuubi FM. 3.3:Study population The study will involve 60 care providers and employees of the orphanage homes at least 12 from each of the selected orphanage homes. 15 employees of radio stations in the area of study will also be used to answer questionnaires. At least 5 employees from each radio station that is Super FM, Central Broadcasting Service and Ssuubi FM. The researcher will target presenters of those programs related to the topic of study. Children from the orphanage homes are left out because in most cases they are young and below 18. The researchers may even seek for secondary data from the records available. Questionnaires will be used for they are to bring out concerns and needs of the target population in relation to the care providers and children under care. The care providers are chosen because they are in direct administration of the affairs regarding the children and they are equipped with information about unwanted pregnancies 3.4:Data collection The main instruments for data collection were interview guides and questionnaires. Questionnaires will be administered to collect data about the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth in orphanage homes in Rubaga  Division of Kampala District. 3.5:Procedure and data collection The researcher obtained an introduction letter from the department of Mental Health and Community Psychology from her supervisor. The researcher then will approached the administrators of the five orphanage homes and the three radio stations and introduced herself with the help of the letter. The researcher then will ask for permission to conduct research in these organizations and their areas of operation. The different respondents, service providers are to be requested to consent before the questionnaire is administered on to them. Informed consent will sought after the respondents are assured that the research findings are to be treated as confidential. 3.5:Data analysis Data collected will be edited, categorized or coded and organized in themes and there after it will be analyzed in line with the objectives set at the beginning of the study. For the quantitative data, tally method will be used manually, similar responses will be grouped together to ascertain the number and percentage of respondents who came up with similar views. For qualitative data, views and opinions of respondents will grouped, analyzed and established if they have a bearing on the relationship between parenting styles, mass media, peer pressure and the risk of teenage pregnancy among the youth. All this will be done by use of frequency tables and tabulations at the level of report writing and presentation. 3.6:Limitations of the study 1Willingness of the organization management to allow the researcher to use the premises during the research period. This is because sometimes information broadcasted is kept confidential and people are keen on exposure. 2The results of the study may depend on some respondents’ willingness to answer the asked questions 3Literature available about the subject may be limited and difficult to access. 3.7:Ethical considerations Informed consent will be sought after the respondents are assured that the  research findings are to be treated as confidential. Participation in the study will be voluntary and individuals will be free to participate or not to participate even withdrawing from the study will be accepted. Since there is a lot of stigma attached to unwanted teenage pregnancy, only individuals who are willing to disclose will be studied. 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Family relationships and adolescent pregnancy risk: a research synthesis. Dev Rev2001;21:1–38. Taris TW, Semin GR. Parent-child interaction during adolescence, and the adolescent’s sexual experience: control, closeness and conflict. J Youth Adolesc1997;26:373–98. Lewis O. La Vida: a Puerto Rican family in the culture of poverty—San Juan and New York. London: Secker and Warburg, 1967. Joseph K. Caring for people. London: Conservative Political Centre, 1972. Murray C. The emerging British underclass. London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1990. Murray C. Underclass: the crisis deepens. London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1996. Welshman J. The cycle of deprivation and the concept of the underclass. Benefits2002;10:199–205. Rutter M, Madge N. Cycles of disadvantage. London: Heinemann, 1976. Denham A, Garnett M. From the cycle of enrichment to the cycle of deprivation. Benefits2002;10:193–8. Stephenson JM, Strange V, Forrest S, et al. Pupil-led sex education in England (RIPPLE study): cluster-randomised intervention trial. Lancet 2004;364:338–46. Oakley A, Rajan L. Social class and social support: the same or different? Sociology1991;25:31–59.

Comparison of Three (3) Paintings Essay Example for Free

Comparison of Three (3) Paintings Essay Theme: The Battle of the Amazons, 1618 by Pieter Pauwel Rubens seems to be of war, violence and the dire need to finish a battle no matter the cost while the Heart of the Andes, 1859 by Frederic Edwin Church seems to be about the vastness and beauty of nature in its balance of contrasts between light and darkness, massiveness and diminutiveness, power and weakness. The Volga Boatmen, 1870-73 painted by Ilya Repin, however, depicts the theme of undesired yet unconscious captivity. Mood: The mood conveyed by this painting called The Battle of the Amazons, 1618 is one of disturbed turmoil while the Heart of the Andes, 1859 gives one the feel of tranquility and peace. The Volga Boatmen, 1870-73 however, affects you by making you feel hopeless. Meaning: Rubens’ painting, The Battle of the Amazons, makes me feel disturbed because of the war between two determined forces that will do everything to win. However I see an underlying chauvinist message because the drama in this picture shows that the men are on top of the situation and that the women are driven to go below the bridge and die. It does show the courage and strength of women despite the drive of the masculine to be victorious though. For me, Church’s Heart of the Andes, 1859 is so full of meaning in the context of Christianity. The cross is so small amidst its surrounding mountains, trees and river. I feel that it just shows that we are in a world where we cannot control nature. All we can hold on to is faith. It also conveys the message of hope. One could see that the water rushes with force near the waterfalls but calms down by the banks. It could mean that one tends to focus on turbulent areas of his life but the calm beyond it is there to bring hope. This is also seen with the contrast of light on the left side of the painting and darkness or cloudiness at the side of the mountains. It is innate in nature to be a balance. There cannot be too much darkness without the promise of light. Repin’s The Volga Boatmen, 1870-73 is a painting that seems to tell me that one is imprisoned into captivity because of one’s job as a boatman. Although there is no one guarding or holding you in custody, the mere plight of having to work detains you and sentences you to a life of burden and unhappiness. Although there are boatmen in the painting that seem to joke or even smoke a pipe, these do not eliminate the harshness of life. It shows a contradiction because although the area where they are situated in seems to be vast, they do not see the potential for life. Similarities: These paintings are similar in the sense that they portray life in its real sense. The Battle of the Amazons shows that women will never win against men in the brutality of physical strength. The Heart of the Andes shows that nature will take its course no matter what and that hope is just there if you will just recognize it. The Volga boatmen shows that life is dreary if you are burdened with work that you don’t love. In the matter of colors, the palette used were all of natural shades which seem to mean that these paintings are all about life and human nature. Contrasts: These paintings contrast each other because of the messages they seem to convey. The Battle of the Amazons show that one has to fight to get what he wants in life. The Heart of the Andes seems to show that one will eventually get what fate will give no matter what he prays for. The Volga Boatmen simply tells us that life means nothing so you just have to live it everyday. The paintings also differ in its approach because the Battle of the Amazons shows a very tight scene full of action in every space while the Heart of the Andes shows little action at all while the Volga Boatmen conveys no movement from its subject despite their efforts to pull their burden.

Strategic interactions of players in Oligopoly Markets

Strategic interactions of players in Oligopoly Markets The strategic interaction between players in the oligopoly markets gives its study a tint of dynamism. This interdependence nature of oligopolies brings about the concept of conjectural behaviour, a situation whereby the actions and decisions of firms in the markets depends on the actions and decisions of the others. This brings about many of the theoretical problems in modelling oligopolistic behaviour (Waterson 1984, pg 17). An extension of such problem is borne on the willingness of firms to gain market power, and most cases; it is done through integration into lines of business that are related. Literature varies with respect to the theoretical aspect of integrating related firms with unrelated ones, as there has been mixed results in the area of profitability. Rumelt found out that firms that are not vertically integrated are more profitable (Rumelt 1976). Whereas, the situation was different with Luffman and Reed, who argued that vertically integrated firms are more profitable (Luffman and Reed 1984). Policy actions is said to cause a loss in social welfare rather than the actions of the firms themselves, and that integration is used strategically to achieve anticompetitive effects (Cowling and Mueller 1978). This study assesses the measurement of monopoly profit in a collusive oligopolistic market and also deals with the estimation of welfare loss in the distribution aspect of the British film industry. It will also deal with whether vertical integration contributes adversely to consumers welfare or not. The analysis is carried out using the gross profit, general selling administrative expenses and after tax profits of the distributors in the British film industry for the past 20 years, ranging from 1990 2009. As is in the treatment of oligopolies, there are different ways of measuring the game theory. It is either the use of Bertrand equilibrium (which focuses on the manipulation of price to gain market power) is employed, or the Cournot model (which talks about the adjustment of quantity) is used. In other cases, there is the use of intermediate models which deals with the combination of price and quantity adjustment to achieve competitive edge over other players in the industry. In t his analysis, Cowling and Muellers (1978) model will be employed. Their method is based on the Cournot-Nash equilibrium model. The distributors involved in this analysis will be divided into two categories as is the industrial structure. There will be a set that is involved in integration of the production and or exhibition aspect into the business of distribution, while the other set is basically the independent distributors, that is, those involved only in the business of distribution without recourse to other aspect of the industry. The next section will deal with a discussion into the industry. This will involve the history of the industry, the basic structure, size of the industry, how concentrated the industry is and a look into the recent development in the industry. A descriptive statistics into the distribution aspect of the industry will also be discussed. Chapter 3 (i.e. literature review) will deal with the approaches used in the analysis of the behaviour of oligopolies that collude in other to gain monopoly profits. The section will start with a brief review of the oligopoly theories as it affects the industry. The main model in this work, the Cournot-Nash model, will be reviewed before the discussion of the complications in the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978). The assumption that welfare loss is enhanced through vertically integration will then be reviewed. The methodology chapter (i.e. chapter 4) will be based on how the analysis is to be carried out. There will be the description of data, the met hods used and the problems encountered during the analysis. Chapter 5 will be based on the findings of the work. It will involve the presentation and discussion in the findings. The final section, chapter 6, will be a conclusion on the work and policy recommendation, if any. Chapter 2 The Industry The British film industry, over several years, can be classified as undulating, with its high and low peaks. The industry is characterised by volatility and persistent instability, and due to such inconsistencies, has attracted government intervention. There are catastrophic cycles in the history of British film. Fluctuations in cinema attendance and the degree of American dominance in the industry were major factors that influenced the industry. Despite these cycles, the industry is said to be the second largest in the world, next to that of US. This section would look at the history of the industry, the industrial structure (i.e. the key distinct but related sectors in the industry; production, distribution and exhibition), size and concentration. This would involve focusing on the pertinent issues that have contributed to the development of the industry over the years. After this, a discussion into recent developments of the industry would be done. History The emergence of the film industry can be attributed to the series of innovations encountered in the nineteenth century in the US, France and UK. Shortly after the UK dominance in the American market (accounting for about 15% share of the market), there was a slum in their dominance as a result of Americas expensive and heavily marketed productions, which resulted into the loss of indigenous followership to less than 10% (Bakker 2005). Despite this, the home audience increased prompting the government to introduce the Entertainment Tax in 1916. This is based on the premises that the industry is a sleeping giant, thereby including other forms of entertainment, like music hall and theatre in the tax. However, the tax was abolished in 1960 (Murphy 2004). The dominance of the American film market was unprecedented in the 1920s that the government had to intervene by the establishment of the Cinematograph Films Act in 1927. The act was to encourage the production of films indigenously and also set the criteria for the distribution and exhibition of films in the home industry. It was believed that the industry could help stimulate the exports of other goods and services in the British economy, and that it would help wade off American dominance in the industry. This act recorded significant success, as more production companies sprang up, among which are Warners, Fox and British International Pictures. The production of films in the UK doubled as a result. However, the criticism faced by the act has to do with the production of low quality films and low cost of the films, in order to meet the quota requirement set out by the Act. In 1936, the act was reviewed and it allocated quotas to both the distribution and exhibition sector of the i ndustry. Also, quality test was also included in the act. This was to encourage competitiveness in the international market for the industry. Financial institutions were also encouraged to participate in the industry through the provision financial assistance to firms in the industry. At the end of World War II, the industry experienced a boom, which saw cinema attendance soar. Of worthy mention is the existence of the Rank Organisation, a vertically integrated firm, involved in the production, distribution and exhibition of films in the industry. The firm dominated the industry in the 1940s, and was the largest film distributor at the time (UK Film Council Research and Statistics Unit 2009). The British government enhanced their role in the administration of the industry when it was realised the American film industry is taking over the home market, through the establishment of the National Film Finance Corporation (NFFC) and the Eady Levy in 1950. The Eady levy was a law enforcing the ploughing back of a percentage of the film profits back into the development of the industry (UK Film Council, 2009). In the early 1980s when Margaret Thatcher came into power, there was an attempt to create a free market in all industries, with the use of a deregulation policy. This was in view of breaking up monopolies, thereby, enhancing competitiveness in the economy. However, there was criticism that there would be a preference for profit maximisation of firms rather than the welfare of people (BFI Institute 2005, pg 1). In line with this deregulation policy, the Eady Levy was abolished in 1985 and the 25% tax break for film investors was removed. The withdrawal of government support in these areas made getting involved in the film business more risky. At the time, the only hope from the state was also privatised thereby curtailing financial assistance. The Rank Organisation failed at this time. Despite this, the industry still witnessed unprecedented growth. In the words of Leonard Quart, in his work The religion of the market cited in Friedman (1993), despite the Thatcher governments unwillin gness to aid the film industry, it did establish a general mood that encouraged economic risk-taking and experimentation with new and more innovative business practices (Friedman 1993, pg 25). Cannon Group became the dominant player in the industry and was involved not only in the financing of films, but was also engaged in the production, distribution and exhibition. But due to over expansion, the group became bankrupt. Structure, Size and Concentration The industry is characterised basically by activities in three areas, which include the production, the distribution and the exhibition of films. These activities are unique but are related in that the films produced are given to distributors, who market to the exhibitors that show it to the final audience. Thus from the process of production till the final stage where the films are screened, there is distributors who serve as middle men, who helps realise the potential of the film. Production The industry is production led. By production expenditure, the market is the fifth largest and is the eleventh largest with respected to the number of films produced as at 2008. The production sector is heavily dependent of inward investments, basically from the United States. This was attributed to the availability of tax relief, the high quality of workforce and the strength of the exchange rate. The fall of the UK pound contributed significantly to the rebound in the production of films. The total expenditure appreciated to about 20 per cent in 2009 when compared to that of the preceding year. Based on the UK Film Council Statistics in 2008, the sector has about 202 active production companies, with few large ones making films of substantial budgets and others producing mainly low budget films (UK Film Council 2009). Distribution Distribution has to do with the management of the release of films produced in order to earn revenue. The main function of the distributor is to convince the exhibitor in renting or booking each film after production. This is a value chain and it involves negotiation with exhibitors, sequencing of the various windows at which to screen the films, advertisement of the films produced and printing production of the films. However, there is also a weakness in this arm as most of the firms are dominated by the UK subsidiaries of American studios. As at 2008, these subsidiaries accounted for 78 per cent of the market power and the top distributors, numbering up to ten, were responsible for 95 per cent of the market share. The largest indigenous distributor in the industry in terms of gross box office is Entertainment Plc. It was responsible for 8 per cent of the market share in 2008. However, the distribution arm of the industry is taunted by audiovisual piracy, which contributed largely t o most of the losses experienced by firms involved. The marginal profit encountered are as a result of retail sale of DVDs and showing on television, with the Video on demand (VOD) market relatively underdeveloped, contributing marginally to the total revenue. The focus of this analysis is on the distribution aspect of the industry. Based on the characteristics of the sector, it is highly concentrated with few firms assuming a greater control of the market share. Unfortunately, this aspect of the British film industry has been given less attention in the past by state regulations, with more emphasis being given to production rather than distribution. However, the bulk of the profit generated in the industry is greatly enhanced by the activities of distributors as they are involved in the promotion and distribution of the work of the producers, helping achieve the full potential of the films. As stated earlier, this is because they act as intermediaries between film makers, exhibition outlets and the final audience. Due to their indispensable role, there absence in the industry would create a situation where there is neither reinvestment in film production nor the display of viable movies to the final consumers. Also, in their absence, the industry would be open to exploitation from external market, such as the domination in existence in the production aspect of the industry. There are several independent distributors who are UK-based operating in the sector and are basically divided into small and large independent distributors. Even though the large distributors are involved in the release of fewer titles in comparison with smaller ones, they still have control of the market share. Exhibition Exhibition has to do with the display of films to the final audience through theatre screening. The market is dominated by few large numbers, as is the case of the distributors, of firms. But these firms are not predominantly owned by foreign firms. In 2008, majority of the screens were controlled by firms; Odeon, Cineworld and Vue, two of which were owned by private equity firms. Recent Development Insert The industry contributed a total of GBP2.5bn to the economy in 2007, with production cropping up a large chunk of 48 per cent, distribution responsible 36 per cent and exhibition taking up the remaining 16 per cent. The industry also contributed to other aspects of the economy like exports and employment. In 2007, the balance of payment surplus accruing to the industry was estimated to about GBP232m. According to the Labour Force Survey conducted by the Office of National Statistics, there were over 35,000 jobs in the industry. There were over 7000 firms in the industry as at 2008 and these were mainly concentrated in the production arm of the industry. However, the concentration of activities in the distribution arm of the industry is concentrated in the hand of few. The contribution of distributors to the industry, and ultimately to the economy, makes it interesting for a study into how they contribute to welfare loss and how vertical integration affects the accumulation of monopoly profits/losses. Chapter 3 Literature Review From previous studies carried out by researchers, there were mixed results as regards the loss in social welfare by firms trying to gain the bulk of the market share in various industries. In the case of Harberger, he found out that the loss of welfare in the United States is at 0.1 of 1 per cent of the Gross National Product (GNP) (Harberger 1954). This finding confirmed that the loss of social welfare as a result of monopolistic tendencies is insignificant. This idea was also backed by others, even with the use of varying assumptions. However, this was under attack by Bergson (1973) who criticised the partial equilibrium framework employed. Bergson employed the general equilibrium approach, which assumed that social welfare can be captured through a social indifference curve. According to Cowling and Mueller (1978), it was argued that such assumptions brings about discrepancy between the variations in the price cost margins and the supposed constant elasticities of demand (Cowling and Mueller 1978). Thus, this analysis will employ the use of the partial equilibrium approach, following the work of Cowling and Mueller, which was based on the Cournot-Nash equilibrium approach. The next section deals with the brief review of oligopoly theories, the review of the model used, discussion of the complications of the Cowling-Mueller model, and how it affects the industry. Review of oligopoly theories The main feature of an oligopoly is the reliance of firms on the actions of the others, which makes it difficult to assume the simple solutions of a monopoly or perfect competition. There are two main forms clearly distinguished under the classical oligopoly theory, both being majorly determined by either price or quantity (Tasnadi 2006). In order to study the oligopoly markets, economists make use of the game theory in modelling their behaviours. There is the Bertrand competition, which relies on the manipulation of prices as a way of competition. On the other hand is the Cournot Nash competition, which describes the industry with oligopolistic tendency, as one in which companies compete on the amount of goods produced, with the assumptions of homogenous goods, no collusion, existence of market power, and rationality. There is no single model describing the workings of an oligopolistic market. This is because companies compete on varying platforms such as price, quantity, marketing , reputation, technological innovations, etc (Colander 2008). The Bertrand model of oligopolies focuses on price. The model illustrates the interactions between the firm (one who sets the price) and the customer (one who chooses the quantity to buy at the price given by the firm). The working of the model is based on the assumptions that goods are undifferentiated, no collusion and prices are set at the same time. Given the rationality of consumers, they buy from the firm who offers the lowest prices and if all the firms give the same price, they choose the firms to buy from at random. Assuming there is no capacity restriction, if a firm raises the price of its goods, it becomes likely that such firm would lose most or all its customers. In the same light, if the firm reduces prices below its marginal cost, it would lose money on every unit sold (Binger and Hoffman 1998). Thus, under the Bertrand model, the equilibrium is where the price is equals to marginal cost, resulting in zero-profit for the participating firms. However, relaxing the assu mption of capacity restrictions results in a situation where equilibrium is not achieved. The Cournot-Nash Model While the Bertrand model focuses on price, Cournot-Nash model emphasises the importance of quantity adjustment. The model assumes the existence of Cournot conjecture; that firms compete based on quantity rather than prices and that the behaviour of firms are stable. Equilibrium is reached at a point where neither firm desires to change what it produces based on its knowledge on what other firms produces. This is regarded as the Cournot-Nash equilibrium (Kreps 1990). Traditionally, the model considers two firms with the assumption that their marginal costs are linear but not necessarily identical. Each firm is believed to have the ability to decide on the level to produce in other to maximize profit, given the output level of the other firm and this is called the reaction function. In the case of N-number of firms, overall industry production curve is based on the reaction functions of other firms with respect to what the market leader produces. As in the game theory, each firm decide s on the best response function that helps maximize their profit, and if followed at all times results into the Nash equilibrium (Fulton 1997). In general, the Cournot theorem states that as the number of firms in the industry grows to infinity, it brings about competitive tendencies and pushes price towards marginal cost. In perfect competition, allocative efficiency requires that prices to be set equal to the marginal costs of production throughout the economy. If firms are able to restrict output in order to maintain price above the marginal costs this leads to a misallocation of resources and loss of economic welfare. The monopolist is able to raise his price above the level of marginal cost, as he is a price maker. This situation can be compared with the benchmark case of perfect competition where firms are price takers and cannot sell any unit of goods produced at a price higher than the marginal cost and cannot earn supernormal/abnormal profits. Fig 1: Welfare effect of Competition and Monopoly profits Figure 1 compares the welfare effects or performance of perfect competition and monopoly. It depicts the neoclassical case against monopoly. Theorists have formulated the welfare loss concept which measures the potential gain of a movement away from monopoly to perfect competition. The analysis shows the basic deadweight loss model used by Harberger (1954). In order to simplify the analysis, the assumption that costs are constant is used. If the industry is competitive, the firms cannot set price above MC (P=MC), thus the quantity produced is Qc. In figure 1, under perfect competition price would be at Pc and output Qc. Marshall stated that consumer surplus is the difference between what a consumer is willing to pay for a good and the amount actually paid for it. It is a measure of the benefits to a consumer of trading in a market. It is shown by the triangle between price and demand. Market demand is refered to as D (the amount consumers are willing to pay for an additional unit of the product). Thus, consumers pay a price Pc for all units purchased. Any marginal increase in output below Qc generates a difference between the price actually paid and the price consumers are willing to pay. This is the consumer surplus, represented by the larger triangle above marginal cost, depicting an absence of abnormal profit. Given a monopoly facing an equivalent demand and costs conditions, the maximisation of profit may be achieved through output reduction, which is at a point where MC=MR. Here, the price shifts to Pm, thereby setting price above MC, and quantity produced falls to Qm. The triangle above Pm is referred to as the surplus due to consumers in a monopolistic setting. The shaded portion A in the diagram is the supernormal profit due for a monopoly, which signifies the redistribution of wealth from consumers to firms. Thus, the decrease in consumer surplus, as a result of a competitive entity moving to monopoly is represented by the addition of the two shaded portions A and B. However, the net social loss accruing as a result of the existence of monopoly power is represented by the shaded part B (Sawyer 1981). In the work of Harberger, he argued that this triangle is really tiny and is nothing to worry about. Posner, in describing the net social loss, stated that: When market price rises above the competitive level, consumers who continue to purchase the sellers product at the new, higher price suffer a loss exactly offset by the additional revenue that the sellers obtain at the higher price. Those who stop buying the product suffer a loss not offset by any gain to the sellers. This is the deadweight loss from supracompetitive pricing and in traditional analysis its only social cost, being regarded merely as a transfer from consumers to producers (Posner 1975, pg. 807). Complications of the Cowling Mueller Model Observing the mark-up of price on marginal cost helps define the implied price elasticity of demand with the assumption of a profit maximizing behaviour, which also applies to a colluding oligopoly or pure monopoly. Following the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978), in defining a firms implied elasticity of demand, assumed that welfare loss will be estimated from their cost margins. (1) where we have as the price elasticity of demand for the industry; as the price given by firm i; and as the marginal cost of firm i. The estimates derived would help explain the amount of welfare loss (the single firms decision to set price above marginal cost) realised from the reaction functions of firms. The assumption that each firm in the industry possesses some degree of monopoly power is employed and will be applied on a firm by firm basis. This enables them to charge prices higher than the marginal cost of production, given there is perfect competition. This is to help in estimating the relative importance of the variations in each firms outputs. This draws more light on the interdependence of observed price distortions (dp) and changes in output (dq), as seen in the work of Cowling and Mueller (1978). Based on this assumption, the welfare loss of the firms can be derived from the partial equilibrium formula for welfare loss; Â ½dpdq. In a situation where the firms expectatio ns about the behaviour of other competing firms are borne out, it is assumed that = and = =1. Hence the equations; (2) (3) Following the assumption of constant marginal costs, monopoly profit term can be incorporated into the equation, thereby, resulting into (4) Harberger (1954) equated the elasticity of demand to be unitary, i.e. ÃŽÂ · = 1. This depicts that if dpi/pi is small, the social cost of monopoly would be insignificant. He argued that representing the elasticity of demand with a value of 1 was an attempt at compensating for the demerits of using a partial equilibrium measure of welfare loss to examine a structural change in the general equilibrium, and that this would not be so if individual firms cannot act as monopoly in terms of price manipulation. However Cowling and Mueller (1978) refuted this assumption by referring to it as a very awkward way of handling the problem which answers the criticisms raised by Bergson (1973) against the partial equilibrium approach as regards the interdependence of price distortions and change in output (pg. 730), even though their analysis was based on the so criticised partial equilibrium approach. Wenders (1967), as cited in Cowling and Mueller (1978), questioned Harbergers position, but wer e erroneous in their calculations due to ignorance in assuming that the degree of collusion is a variable. Thus, the assumption of joint profit maximization need not be used. Based on this, there is need for proper definition of the methodology involving the partial equilibrium approach, so as to derive plausible estimates from it (to be done later on in this discussion). In measuring the monopoly profits, the excess of actual profits over the long run competitive returns (which are the profits that are compatible with the long run survival in an equilibrium economy) is determined, after adjustment is made for the accommodation of risk, as in the case of Worcester (1973). He used a median profit rate of 90% in allowing for biasness: a rather ad hoc adjustment. The divergence of actual rates of profits and the mean rates was the root of monopoly profits in earlier studies, following that of Harberger. These studies treated industries whose profit is in the range of 5% above or below the mean profit as those that have created welfare loss. However, this will result in a downward biasness of the monopoly welfare estimate as it underestimates the level of monopoly returns. It is not feasible to lean ones analysis on the premises of equal effects on welfare loss by monopolists and firms in perfect competition. Even if the assumption holds, the problem of how to handle firms experiencing loss would arise. Rather, it is plausible to argue that these firms are in disequilibrium and as such, have costs above the competitive levels. Hence, in deriving the social cost of monopoly, the firms experiencing loss will be dropped. This is in line with the work of Cowling and Mueller, who assumed that the firms would return to their normal profits or would disappear, thereby, creating no long run loss to the economy. The role of vertical integration The effect of the firms trying to gain market power is also a contributory factor into the loss of social welfare. Vertical integration carves out niches for monopolistic possibilities in product and geographical areas. Vertical integration is divided into upstream (backward, deals with the production of basic inputs) and downstream (forward, deals with the production of finished or nearly finished products). When two or more operations are vertically integrated, there is a natural bias towards internal procurement of components even in the presence of inefficiency. Bounded rationality also has its role in the diseconomies effect of vertical integration. It would basically take place where it is mutually beneficial to do so and not necessarily when it is cheaper. According to Greenhut and Ohta (1976), vertical integration does not increase integrators monopoly power, but rather, eliminates transitional twist caused by increasing mark-ups. Not only does it eliminate such distortions, it improves the provision of differentiated goods. Carlton (1979) assumes the prevalence of downstream over upstream in an integrated world. Hence, integration is socially undesirable since the downstream firms cannot absorb risk as efficiently as the upstream. The market is less to be contestable if integration is embarked upon by established firms. This is because the possibility of a potential entrant having the know-how and the economies of scale in the successive stages of production is very slim. There is likely to be sunk costs, which may be too expensive for the new entrant, thereby raising entry barrier. However, the ability to discriminate hinges on being able to identify groups of customers having different demand elasticities, then being able to preven t them from price discrimination. This firm structure helps to prevent leakages between markets if the collusive oligopoly, engaging in the upstream successive stage of production, integrates into one or more downstream markets, while still possibly allowing sales of the upstream product to unintegrated firms for specific uses (Waterson 1984). In general, the vertical integration accrues to the firm benefits, which would not have been possible if independently functioning. Among the benefits are lower transaction costs, capturing upstream and downstream profit margins, reduction in uncertainty (i.e. there is always supply assurance), expansion of core competence and the ability to gain a considerable part of the market share. These benefits are supported by the existence of taxes and regulations of market transactions, economies of scale, and similarities between the integrated activities (Greaver 1999). According to Buzzel (1983), he argued that operating in an integrated basis results in the benefits being offset by costs and risks, among which he noted capital requirement, reduced flexibility, and loss of specialization. Firms enjoying monopoly power would act to defend their market through entry barriers, which is a potential free rider problem. Unless, the barriers to entry can be effectively coordinated, it would be difficult to derive a means of calculating above competitive profits. Given the unlikelihood associated with gaining monopoly profit without the expense of extra resource, it would be profitable to utilise extra resources to deter entry. Tullock (1967) and Posner (1975), as cited in Cowling and Waterson (2003), maintained that if the existence of competition for market power is granted by some authority and that the practice acquire real resource costs, it is possible that all the gains due on monopolistic tendencies may be frittered away in the struggle to obtain it. These resource costs may be in the form of excessive generation of advertising goodwill stock; involvement is excess production capacity and excessive costs on Research and Development by engaging in product differentiat ion. It was also believed that the efforts to acquire patent protection, tariff protection and other forms of unwarranted state treatment contribute significantly to welfare loss meted out by monopolies. So, Cowling and Muell

The Breakdown of the Carbone family in A View From The Bridge :: A View from the Bridge, Arthur Miller

Trace the Breakdown of the Carbone family in A View From The Bridge New York in the 1940’s the United States welcomed immigrants from all over Europe but especially Italy, the only problem with these immigrants was, most where illegal. The Italians, starved from the depression of World War One fled their homes and sometimes families for a better life in America. This often worked because the areas where you went to live often contained more people of the same race and as they say ‘blood is thicker than water’ to these people so one person wouldn’t tell on another for hiding or being an illegal immigrant. One problem though, this being to get to America you had to be smuggled in by the Mafia, this happened to cost an arm and a leg which means your in debt to the Mafias, so when and if, you get to America most of the money you earned went to the Mafias, so it was a hard life but better than the one you had. This play is about two Italians that decide to take this risk, but what will happen as a cause of this†¦ Catherine Carbone is Eddie Carbone’ niece, she is a 17 year old girl and is strikingly good looking. On the other hand Eddie is a 40, husky, slightly overweight long shore man, one problem though he has a thing for Catherine, but Eddie knows he can’t have her, so because he can’t have here no one else can either, or you might say, Eddie Carbone ‘ wont settle for half ’, but a good looking 17 year old isn’t going to stay single for long, this creates a dilemma for Eddie. Catherine has spent pretty much all her life with Eddie so she has become very attached, for example, ‘you sit on the edge of the bathtub talking to him when he’s shaving’ in his underwear’, she thinks she is just talking to him, where as Eddie thinks that she is trying to say something and it’s not. So from an early age she has been manipulated by Eddie, making him seem the only one to trust and to believe every word he says, for example, ‘I wish there was one guy you couldn’t tell me things about!’ showing that if Eddie found a guy that Eddie didn’t now bad things about he would be a good guy to go out with but, Eddie isn’t going to find any won like. Beatrice is petrified of Eddie and he uses this to his advantage. Making Beatrice feel sorry for him when he’s being rude to her, ‘when

Richard Warren Sears And Sears, Roebuck, & Company :: essays research papers

Richard Warren Sears and Sears, Roebuck, & Company Richard Warren Sears was born on December 7, 1863, in Stewartville, Minnesota. He was the son of James Warren and Eliza A. Sears, both of English ancestory. His father led anything but a happy life. He had failed in his quest for gold during the California Gold Rush of 1849 and was a bitter soldier in the Civil War, which he blamed on politicians. He had earned a sizable sum of money working as a blacksmith and a wagonmaker, but he lost it all in a stock-farm venture. Richard's father gave up soon afterwards, leaving Richard to be the family breadwinner at the age of 16. Richard worked in the general offices of the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway in Minneapolis to support his family. He then decided to move Redwood Falls, Minnesota, where he thought that he could earn more money because of the small town setting. There he worked as a station attendant, doing chores for his board and sleeping in the loft of the railroad station. In his spare time, he learned how the mail-order business worked. Richard got his opportunity to get into the mail-order business in 1886 when a shipment of watches from a Chicago wholesaler was refused by a town jeweler. Therefore, the shipment sat in the railroad station until Richard contacted the wholesaler, who offered him the watches for twelve dollars each. He bought the watches and sold them by sending letters to other station attendants describing the watches and offering them at the discount price of fourteen dollars each. He sold those watches and ordered more to sell. To sell these he advertised in a small way in St. Paul newspapers. He made a large profit from this operation. In a few months Richard made such a profit that he abandoned the railroad business entirely and started his own mail-order business under the name of the R.W. Sears Watch Company. In one year he made so much money that he was able to begin advertising in magazines with a national circulation and move the business to Chicago. On March 1, 1887, he set up a shop on Dearborn Street in Chicago with a staff of three people, one to handle bookkeeping and correspondence and two stenographers. Soon after the opening of his new shop, he found a need for a watchmaker to repair watches returned by customers. This watchmaker was a young man by the name of Alvah Curtis Roebuck from Hammond, Indiana. Richard Sears became even more successful by opening up the huge rural market.

Raw Foods Diet :: essays research papers

What’s up with the Raw Deal? The Atkins diet? South-Beach Diet? Jenny Craig? Weight Watchers? But a Raw-food only diet? What the†¦?! Consuming only raw foods? Not cooking anything? Isn’t that unhealthy? Not according to advocates of this diet. The raw foods diet is among some of the latest fad and celebrity-hyped diets out there today, you can even find some restaurants that only serve raw foods. The name of the raw food diet says it all: You only consume raw, unprocessed foods. Diet devotees claim the diet improves nutrition and health, offers spiritual enlightenment and improves digestion among other things. But can a diet consisting only of raw foods truly live up to its promises and can it be healthy?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Followers consume a diet regimen made up of fresh, raw fruits and vegetables, sprouted seeds, nuts, legumes, dried fruits, milk from coconut, fresh fruit and vegetable juices and other organic or natural foods which have not been processed. Sounds healthy. It stems from the thinking that raw and living foods contain the essential enzymes needed for proper digestion, as well as containing higher nutrient values. Raw food dieters believe the enzymes in raw foods are the life force and that every food has its own essential enzymes. These enzymes help the body digest the foods completely, without relying on the body’s own enzymes. This means that cooked foods, foods cooked higher than 116  °F, are â€Å" dead† because all of these enzymes and nutrients are destroyed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But is their scientific data to back this up? No, not really. It has been widely known and accepted that cooking our food is healthier and safer. Cooking foods kills any harmful bacteria, it lets us eat a wide variety of foods especially those who cannot tolerate raw uncooked vegetables, which can leave individuals with nutrient deficiencies. And well, yes cooking does kill the foods enzymes, our body has its own enzymes for proper digestion and health and doesn’t need other enzymes.

Idling Engine Ban

1. To what extent do you agree with the idling engine ban? A few years ago, the Environmental Protection Department proposed to legislate the idling engine ban, under which all vehicles must switch off their engines. I totally disagree with the idling engine ban, for I think that this policy not only cannot bring benefits to pedestrians in air quality, but instead brings harm to drivers and passengers. To start with, the idling engine ban brings inconvenience to drivers. As the idling engine ban proposes that a driver has to switch off their idle engines immediately, drivers had to switch of their engines even if they had to wait in a place for as short as 3 minutes. This abrupt switching off and on of the engine is not only bothersome to drivers, but may lead to a shorter lifespan of motor vehicles. Apart from the harm to the driver, a problem of poor ventilation is caused by the idling engine ban, which affects both drivers and passengers. As stated by the government, vehicles are the second largest local source of air pollutants. In the middle of the road where traffic is intense, if a driver has to switch off the air conditioner and open the windows, the driver and the passengers will breathe in harmful gases which will affect their health in the long term. Also, when the temperature reaches above 30 degrees in summer, drivers and passengers have a high chance of suffering from heat strokes if the air conditioner is turned off. To maintain a driver’s good condition of health is crucial when driving, therefore the idling engine ban is not feasible. Moreover, from the government’s perspective, it is difficult for the idling engine ban to be implemented. Firstly, a fine of $320 may not be severe enough to stop drivers from switching on their idling engines. Secondly, as there are many exemptions to the ban, the police will not be able to identify violating vehicles effectively. The usefulness of the ban would be greatly decreased. The government stated that the idling engine ban can reduce air pollution in Hong Kong as vehicles are a main pollutant. I agree that the ban can improve the health of Hong Kong citizens and pedestrians in particular, though only in a small extent. However, statistics show that emissions produced when vehicles are idle are only a small part of gas emitted by vehicles. In fact, running vehicles produce a major part of pollutants. Thus, I think that the idling engine ban is not significant enough; the government should consider alternatives to tackle the major problem of the increasing number of private cars to reduce air pollution. To conclude, the idling engine ban would cause inconvenience to drivers and affect the health of drivers and pedestrians. It would be difficult to implement and ineffective to reduce air pollution. Therefore, I totally disagree with the idling engine ban as it brings harmful effects to all stakeholders. 2. What can individuals, private organizations and the government do to ease the costs you have identified in Q1? In Q1, I have identified the costs of the idling engine ban as inconvenience to drivers, poor ventilation during hot weather, difficult implementation and insignificance in reducing air pollution. Firstly, if the idling engine ban was implemented, individual drivers can develop more self-discipline and abide to the laws so that gas emissions will decrease. They can also report on cases of violating the ban. The effectiveness of the ban would increase and implementation of the ban would be more successful. Individuals can also ride on public vehicles more often, so that the major source of air pollutants would be cut down. Secondly, private organizations such as environmental organizations can tell Hong Kong citizens the benefits of the idling engine ban through large-scale functions or advertisements, so that more drivers will see the meaning behind the ban and will not complain that it is inconvenient. They will obey the ban more strictly. Thirdly, the government can ease the poor ventilation during hot weather by changing the ban to allow exemption of all vehicles from switching off the idle engine when the temperature is over 30 degrees. Also, the government can increase the fine so that drivers would not violate the ban easily and it would be easier to implement the ban.